sixer9682
Registered User
- Joined
- Sep 29, 2008
- Messages
- 11,119
Egypt and the Sûdân; handbook for travellers
*XXX. DYNASTY (378-341 B.C.).378-425. Nektanbēs (Nekht-Har-ehbēt), of Sebennytos, built a temple of Isis at Beḥbît el-Ḥagar (p. 174), a gate at Karnak (p. 277), and a colonnade in the oasis of Khârgeh (p. 381).
360-359. Tachos (Tehor) was dethroned, and died at the Persian court.
358-341.
341. NektanebÃ…Âs (Nekhte - nebof) was a powerful monarch, in whose reign large temples (e.g. at Philæ. p. 364) were once more built. Egypt, however, was reconquered by the Persians; the king fled to Ethiopia and the temples were plundered.
332. Alexander the Great took possession of Egypt.
b. Graeco-Roman Period (332 B.C.-640 A.D.).
1. Alexander the Great and the Ptolemaic Period.332-330. ‘Under the Ptolemies the lower valley of the Nile became once more for three centuries the seat of a brilliant kingdom, at first under gifted rulers of the most prosperous, richest, and most powerful state in the world, but afterwards condemned to shameful impotence under their vicious and degenerate posterity, torn by fratricidal wars, and existing only by the favour of Rome, until it was involved in the domestic struggles of Rome and finally perished.’ The customs and religious views of the Egyptians were respected by the Ptolemies, who represented themselves to the native population as the descendants of the ancient Pharaohs. Large temples were built during this period.
332-323. Alexander the Great tolerated the native religion and visited the oasis of Jupiter Ammon (Siweh Oasis, p. 378) in 331, where he was hailed by the priests as a son of Ammon. He founded Alexandria (p. 12), which soon became the centre of Greek culture and of the commerce of the whole world. After his death in 323 the Macedonian empire fell to pieces. Egypt became the satrapy of â€â€
323-285. Ptolemy I. Soter I., son of Lagus, who carried on the government at first for Philippus Arrhidæus and Alexander II., son of Alexander the Great, and then for the latter alone. Alexander II, died in 311 and Ptolemy assumed the title of king in 305. The Museum at Alexandria (p. 13) and Ptolemaïs Hermiou (p. 221), in Upper Egypt, were founded in this reign.
285-247. Ptolemy II. Philadelphus married first Arsinoë I., daughter of Lysimachus, then his sister Arsinoë II. Arsinoë II. was named patron-goddess of the Faiyûm, which was entitled the ‘Arsinoite nome’ in her honour. Under Philadelphus and his successors great elephant-hunts took place on the Somali coast. The elephants were brought to Egypt and trained for military purposes.
cviii
347-222.
238. Ptolemy III. Euergetes I. married Berenice of Cyrene. He temporarily conquered the empire of the Seleucides in Asia Minor. An unsuccessful attempt was made by the Egyptian priests to reform the calendar by intercalating a day in every fourth year. The power of Egypt abroad was now at its zenith.
222-205. Ptolemy IV. Philopator. Under the misgovernment of this king and his successors the empire of the Ptolemies began to totter. Ptolemy IV. defeated Antiochus the Great of Syria, who had threatened the Egyptian frontier, at the battle of R aphia, but concluded a dishonourable peace with him. The king married his sister Arsinoë III. For nineteen years a series of native Pharaohs ruled at Thebes.
205-481.
193. Ptolemy V. Epiphanes (comp. p. cxxvi) ascended the throne, when five years of age, under the guardianship of Agathocles and Å“;nanthe, the mother of the latter. In consequence of a revolt at Alexandria his guardians were obliged to resign their office. Advantage of these dissensions was taken by Antiochus the Great of Syria and Philip V. of Macedonia to invade the foreign possessions of Egypt. Egypt offered the guardianship of Ptolemy V. to the Roman Senate, which ceded CÅ“lesyria and Palestine to Antiochus, while Egypt continued to be independent. Ptolemy married Cleopatra I., daughter of Antiochus. The internal affairs of the country fell into deplorable confusion; rebellion succeeded rebellion, and anarchy prevailed everywhere.
181. Ptolemy V. was poisoned.
181-146. Ptolemy VI. Philometor, his son, ascended the throne under the guardianship of his mother Cleopatra. Onias was permitted by the king to build a Jewish temple at Leontonpolis (p. 171).
171. Battle of Pelusium. Philometor was taken prisoner, and Memphis captured, by Antiochus IV. of Syria. The king's younger brother â€â€
Ptolemy IX. (Physkon), at first also surnamed Philometor, was summoned to the throne by the Alexandrians.
170-163. Ptolemy VI. and Ptolemy IX.
reigned jointly, having become reconciled, and with them also their sister Cleopatra, wife of Philometor.
163.
163-146. The brothers again quarrelled. Philometor, banished by his brother, fled to Rome, was reinstated by the Roman Senate, and thenceforth reigned alone, while the younger brother became King of Cyrene.
cix
146. After the death of Philometor he was succeeded by his son,
Ptolemy VII. Eupator, who, after a very short reign, gave place to â€â€
Ptolemy IX., who now assumed the title of Euergetes(II.).
He married his brother's widow and afterwards also his niece Cleopatra.
130. Expelled by a revolution, Ptolemy IX. sought refuge in Cyprus, while Cleopatra reigned in Egypt as Philometor Soteira. Memphites, a son of Euergetes, became, under the name Ptolemy VIII. Neos Philopator, a rival to his father, who succeeded in murdering him.
127. Euergetes II. regained possession of the throne. After his death the government was shared by his widow â€â€
127. Cleopatra Cocce and her son Ptolemy X. Soter II. (Lathyrus).
106. Soter II. was banished, and his brother Ptolemy XI. Alexander I. became co-regent in his stead.
88. Alexander, expelled by a rebellion, perished in a naval battle. Soter II. was recalled.
Thebes rebelled and was destroyed.
81. After the death of Soter II. Ptolemy XII. Alexander II. married Cleopatra Berenice, with whom he reigned jointly.
80. He assassinated his wife and was himself slain.
80-52.
59.
55. Ptolemy XIII. Neos Dionysos (popularly called Auletes, i.e. ‘the flute-player’) next ascended the throne and was formally recognized by Rome. He was banished by his daughter Berenice, who married Archelaus, an alleged son of Mithridates VI., King of Pontus, but he was restored by the Romans after six months. The temple at Edfu (p. 344) was completed and that at Dendera was begun (p. 245).  Ptolemy XIII. was succeeded by his children â€â€
51-47. Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIV., under the guardianship of the Roman Senate. Pompey was appointed guardian.
48.
47. Ptolemy XIV. banished his sister Cleopatra. Pompey, having been defeated at the battle of Pharsalia, sought refuge in Egypt, but on landing was slain at the instigation of Ptolemy, his ward.
Cæsar landed at Alexandria (p. 12), took the part of the banished Cleopatra, and defeated the rebellious Ptolemy, who was drowned in the Nile.  Cæsar, having meanwhile become dictator of Rome, appointed â€â€
47. Ptolemy XV., the brother of Cleopatra, a boy of eleven, co-regent.
45. Ptolemy XV. was assassinated at the instigation of Cleopatra, and â€â€
Ptolemy XVI. Cæsar (also called Cæsarion), her son by Cæsar, was appointed co-regent.
44. Cæsar was murdered.
41.
31.
30. Antony, having summoned Cleopatra to Tarsus to answer for the conduct of her general Allienus, who contrary to her wishes had aided the army of Brutus and Cassius at Philippi, was captivated by her beauty and talent. After having spent years of debauchery with the Egyptian queen, he was at length declared by the Roman Senate to be an enemy of his country. Octavianus marched against him, defeated him at Actium, and captured Alexandria. Antony committed suicide, and Cleopatra also is said to have caused her own death by the bite of an asp.
Egypt now became a Roman province subject only to the emperor and was governed by viceroys or prefects nominated by the emperor.
2. Roman Period.B.C. 30-A.D. 395. The Roman emperors followed the example of the Ptolemies in representing themselves to the Egyptian people as successors of the old Pharaohs and in maintaining the appearance of a national Egyptian state.  Christianity was early introduced into Egypt, where it spread rapidly.
B.C. 30-29. C. Cornelius Gallus (B.C. 69-26), whom Ovid ranked first among Roman elegiac poets, was appointed first perfect. He repressed an insurrection in Upper Egypt (p. 256) and fought against the Ethiopians. Having afterwards fallen into disgrace with the emperor, he committed suicide.  The reformed calendar was finally introduced by Augustus.
27. Caesar Octavianus, under the title of Augustus, became sole ruler of the vast Roman empire (p. 13).
24. The Ethiopians, under their queen Candace, invaded Egypt. Strabo travelled in Egypt.
A.D. 14-37. Tiberius erected the Sebasteum at Alexandria.
19. Germanicus visited Egypt.
37-41. Caligula. In Alexandria civic disturbances took place between the Hellenes and the Jews.
41-51. Claudius. The building of the pronaos of the temple at Esneh (p. 342) was begun.
54-68. Nero. Egypt acquired a new source of wealth as a commercial station between India and Rome.
68-69. Galba. Otho. Vitellius.
69-79. Vespasian (p. 14) was first proclaimed emperor at Alexandria. From this city his son Titus (79-81) started on his expedition against Palestine, which terminated with the destruction of Jerusalem in the year 70. The temple of Onias (p. cviii) was closed.
81-96. Domitian favoured the worship of Isis and Serapis at Rome.
96-98. Nerva.
98-117. Trajan (pp. 13, 182). The canal connecting the Nile with the Red Sea was re-opened (Amnis Trajanus).
cxi
117-138. Hadrian (p. 14) visited Egypt in 130. His favourite Antinous was drowned in the Nile, and was commemorated by the founding of the town of Antinoupolis (p. 209).
138-161. Antoninus Pius.
161-180. Marcus Aurelius (p. 14).
172. Rebellion of the Bucolians, or cow-herds, who had long been settled among the marshes to the E. of Alexandria, quelled by Avidius Cassius.
175. Avidius Cassius was proclaimed emperor by the Egyptian legions, but was assassinated in Syria.
176. Marcus Aurelius visited Alexandria (p. 14).
180-192. Commodus.
ca. 190.
et seq. School of the Cathechists flourished at Alexandria under Pantaenus (the first head on record), Clement, and Origen.
193-211. Septimius Severus (p. 14).
204. Edict prohibiting Roman subjects from embracing Christianity. The Delta at this period was thickly studded with Christian communities.
211-217. Caracalla (p. 14) visited Egypt. Massacre at Alexandria.
212. The Constitutio Antonina admitted provincials to the Roman citizenship.
Caracalla was assassinated by the perfect of his guards â€â€
217-218. Macrinus, who was recognized as emperor by the Egyptians. After his death a series of contests for the possession of the throne took place at Alexandria.
249-251. Decius (p. 14). Persecution of the Christians in 250 A.D. under Bishop Dionysius of Alexandria.
253-260. Valerian. Persecution of the Christians (p. 14).
260-268. Gallienus accorded a certain measure of religious toleration to the Christians. Plague in Egypt.
260. Rebellion of Macrianus, who was recognized as emperor by the Egyptians. He marched into Illyria against Domitian, the general of Gallienus.
265. Æmilianus (Alexander) was proclaimed emperor by the army at Alexandria and recognized by the people, but was defeated and put to death by the Roman legions.
268. Lower Egypt occupied by an army of Queen Zenobia of Palmyra, and part of Upper Egypt by the Blemmyes.
268-270. Claudius II,
270-275. Aurelian.
270. Probus reconquered Egypt for the empire.
ca. 271. Anthony of Coma, a Copt, became the first hermit.
276-282. Probus obtained the purple at Alexandria.
278. His successful campaign against the Blemmyes.
284-305. Diocletian.
292. Rebellion in Upper Egypt.
294. Insurrection of the Alexandrians.
cxii
295. Diocletian took Alexandria.
303. Persecution of the Christians.
305-313 Maximinus. Beginning of the Arian controversies.
ca. 320. Pachomius founded the first convent in Tabennēsē (p. 222).
324-337. Constantine the Great, the first emperor who was really a friend of the Christians. The government of Egypt was reorganized; the country was made into a diocese and subdivided into six provinces, viz. Egypt, Augustamnica, Heptanomis (afterwards called Arcadia), Thebaïs, Upper Egypt, and Lower Egypt.
325. Council of Nice. The doctrine of the presbyter Arius of Alexandria that Christ was begotten by God before all time, for the purpose of creating the world, and was godlike, but not very God, was condemned; while the doctrine that Father and Son are homousioi, or of the same nature, was sanctioned.
326. Athanasius, Archbishop of Alexandria.
328. Constantine founded Constantinople as a new metropolis of Greek art and science.
ca. 330. Beginning of the communities of anchorites in the Sketian and Nitrian deserts (Macarius, Amûn).
337-361. Constantius. He favoured Arianism. Athanasius was banished from Alexandria more than once.
ca. 350. The earliest Coptic translations of the Bible date from about this period.
361-363. Julian, surnamed the Aposlate from his renunciation of Christianity (p. 14).
373. Athanasius died, after witnessing the success of his cause in the last years of his life.
379-395. Theodosius I. the Great. He formally declared Christianity to be the religion of the empire. Persecution of the Arians and heathens (p. 14). Destruction of the Serapeum (p. 14).
395. Partition of the Roman empire, Arcadius being emperor of the East, and Honorius of the West.
3. Byzantine Period.395-368.
395-408. Arcadius. Theophilus, the bigoted Patriarch of Alexandria (p. 15), carried fire and sword against the opponents of anthropomorphism, the doctrine that God must be considered to have a human form.
408-450. Theodosius II.
413. Theophilus died and was succeeded by Cyril (p. 15).
415. Hypatia, the female pagan philosopher (p. 15), died a martyr's death at Alexandria.
431. The Patriarch Cyril defended his view, that the Virgin was η ΘεοÄόÇοÂ, against Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople, at the Third Å“;cumenical Council, held at Epesus.
444. Death of Cyril.
449. In the so-called ‘Robber Council’ at Ephesus the Patriarch Dioscurus of Alexandria obtained a victory as representative of the monophysite view (see p. cxiii).
cxiii
450. Marcian.
451. At the Fourth Å“;cumenical Council, that of Chalcedon, the monophysite doctrine, to the effect that Christ possessed a double nature before his incarnation, but that his human nature was afterwards absorbed by his divine, was condemned, chiefly through the influence of Pope Leo the Great. At this council the doctrine that Christ possesses two natures. á¼€ÃÆ’Ã…γÇῦÄÉ and ἀÄÃÂέÀÀÉÂ, but at the same time ἀδιαιÃÂέÄÉ and ἀÇÉÃÂίÃÄÉÂ, i.e. unmixed and unchangeable, but also indistinguishable and inseparable, was formally adopted by the Church. The Egyptian Christians, to this day, adhere to the monophysite doctrine. Establishment of the national Egyptian or Coptic Church.
474-491. Zeno.
491-518 Anastasius.
502. Famine in Egypt.
527-565. Justinian (p. 15). New administrative measures.
610-641. Heraclius (p. 15).
619. The Persians under Chosroes II. invaded Egypt (p. 15). Alexandria was taken. Chosroes ruled with moderation.
622. The Hegïra, the beginning of the Mohammedan calendar (p. lxxxiv).
626. The Persians expelled by Heraclius.
632 Death of Mohammed. Abu Bekr, his successor, becomes the first caliph.
631. Beginning of the conquest of Syria by the Arabs. Death of Abu Bekr. Omar becomes the second caliph.
636. Decisive victory of the Arabs over the Byzantines on the Yarmûḳ. Fall of Damascus.
637. Victory of the Arabs over the Persians at Kadesia; fall of Ktesiphon. End of the Sassanide empire.
638. Fall of Jerusalem. Omar in Syria.
*XXX. DYNASTY (378-341 B.C.).378-425. Nektanbēs (Nekht-Har-ehbēt), of Sebennytos, built a temple of Isis at Beḥbît el-Ḥagar (p. 174), a gate at Karnak (p. 277), and a colonnade in the oasis of Khârgeh (p. 381).
360-359. Tachos (Tehor) was dethroned, and died at the Persian court.
358-341.
341. NektanebÃ…Âs (Nekhte - nebof) was a powerful monarch, in whose reign large temples (e.g. at Philæ. p. 364) were once more built. Egypt, however, was reconquered by the Persians; the king fled to Ethiopia and the temples were plundered.
332. Alexander the Great took possession of Egypt.
b. Graeco-Roman Period (332 B.C.-640 A.D.).
1. Alexander the Great and the Ptolemaic Period.332-330. ‘Under the Ptolemies the lower valley of the Nile became once more for three centuries the seat of a brilliant kingdom, at first under gifted rulers of the most prosperous, richest, and most powerful state in the world, but afterwards condemned to shameful impotence under their vicious and degenerate posterity, torn by fratricidal wars, and existing only by the favour of Rome, until it was involved in the domestic struggles of Rome and finally perished.’ The customs and religious views of the Egyptians were respected by the Ptolemies, who represented themselves to the native population as the descendants of the ancient Pharaohs. Large temples were built during this period.
332-323. Alexander the Great tolerated the native religion and visited the oasis of Jupiter Ammon (Siweh Oasis, p. 378) in 331, where he was hailed by the priests as a son of Ammon. He founded Alexandria (p. 12), which soon became the centre of Greek culture and of the commerce of the whole world. After his death in 323 the Macedonian empire fell to pieces. Egypt became the satrapy of â€â€
323-285. Ptolemy I. Soter I., son of Lagus, who carried on the government at first for Philippus Arrhidæus and Alexander II., son of Alexander the Great, and then for the latter alone. Alexander II, died in 311 and Ptolemy assumed the title of king in 305. The Museum at Alexandria (p. 13) and Ptolemaïs Hermiou (p. 221), in Upper Egypt, were founded in this reign.
285-247. Ptolemy II. Philadelphus married first Arsinoë I., daughter of Lysimachus, then his sister Arsinoë II. Arsinoë II. was named patron-goddess of the Faiyûm, which was entitled the ‘Arsinoite nome’ in her honour. Under Philadelphus and his successors great elephant-hunts took place on the Somali coast. The elephants were brought to Egypt and trained for military purposes.
cviii
347-222.
238. Ptolemy III. Euergetes I. married Berenice of Cyrene. He temporarily conquered the empire of the Seleucides in Asia Minor. An unsuccessful attempt was made by the Egyptian priests to reform the calendar by intercalating a day in every fourth year. The power of Egypt abroad was now at its zenith.
222-205. Ptolemy IV. Philopator. Under the misgovernment of this king and his successors the empire of the Ptolemies began to totter. Ptolemy IV. defeated Antiochus the Great of Syria, who had threatened the Egyptian frontier, at the battle of R aphia, but concluded a dishonourable peace with him. The king married his sister Arsinoë III. For nineteen years a series of native Pharaohs ruled at Thebes.
205-481.
193. Ptolemy V. Epiphanes (comp. p. cxxvi) ascended the throne, when five years of age, under the guardianship of Agathocles and Å“;nanthe, the mother of the latter. In consequence of a revolt at Alexandria his guardians were obliged to resign their office. Advantage of these dissensions was taken by Antiochus the Great of Syria and Philip V. of Macedonia to invade the foreign possessions of Egypt. Egypt offered the guardianship of Ptolemy V. to the Roman Senate, which ceded CÅ“lesyria and Palestine to Antiochus, while Egypt continued to be independent. Ptolemy married Cleopatra I., daughter of Antiochus. The internal affairs of the country fell into deplorable confusion; rebellion succeeded rebellion, and anarchy prevailed everywhere.
181. Ptolemy V. was poisoned.
181-146. Ptolemy VI. Philometor, his son, ascended the throne under the guardianship of his mother Cleopatra. Onias was permitted by the king to build a Jewish temple at Leontonpolis (p. 171).
171. Battle of Pelusium. Philometor was taken prisoner, and Memphis captured, by Antiochus IV. of Syria. The king's younger brother â€â€
Ptolemy IX. (Physkon), at first also surnamed Philometor, was summoned to the throne by the Alexandrians.
170-163. Ptolemy VI. and Ptolemy IX.
reigned jointly, having become reconciled, and with them also their sister Cleopatra, wife of Philometor.
163.
163-146. The brothers again quarrelled. Philometor, banished by his brother, fled to Rome, was reinstated by the Roman Senate, and thenceforth reigned alone, while the younger brother became King of Cyrene.
cix
146. After the death of Philometor he was succeeded by his son,
Ptolemy VII. Eupator, who, after a very short reign, gave place to â€â€
Ptolemy IX., who now assumed the title of Euergetes(II.).
He married his brother's widow and afterwards also his niece Cleopatra.
130. Expelled by a revolution, Ptolemy IX. sought refuge in Cyprus, while Cleopatra reigned in Egypt as Philometor Soteira. Memphites, a son of Euergetes, became, under the name Ptolemy VIII. Neos Philopator, a rival to his father, who succeeded in murdering him.
127. Euergetes II. regained possession of the throne. After his death the government was shared by his widow â€â€
127. Cleopatra Cocce and her son Ptolemy X. Soter II. (Lathyrus).
106. Soter II. was banished, and his brother Ptolemy XI. Alexander I. became co-regent in his stead.
88. Alexander, expelled by a rebellion, perished in a naval battle. Soter II. was recalled.
Thebes rebelled and was destroyed.
81. After the death of Soter II. Ptolemy XII. Alexander II. married Cleopatra Berenice, with whom he reigned jointly.
80. He assassinated his wife and was himself slain.
80-52.
59.
55. Ptolemy XIII. Neos Dionysos (popularly called Auletes, i.e. ‘the flute-player’) next ascended the throne and was formally recognized by Rome. He was banished by his daughter Berenice, who married Archelaus, an alleged son of Mithridates VI., King of Pontus, but he was restored by the Romans after six months. The temple at Edfu (p. 344) was completed and that at Dendera was begun (p. 245).  Ptolemy XIII. was succeeded by his children â€â€
51-47. Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIV., under the guardianship of the Roman Senate. Pompey was appointed guardian.
48.
47. Ptolemy XIV. banished his sister Cleopatra. Pompey, having been defeated at the battle of Pharsalia, sought refuge in Egypt, but on landing was slain at the instigation of Ptolemy, his ward.
Cæsar landed at Alexandria (p. 12), took the part of the banished Cleopatra, and defeated the rebellious Ptolemy, who was drowned in the Nile.  Cæsar, having meanwhile become dictator of Rome, appointed â€â€
47. Ptolemy XV., the brother of Cleopatra, a boy of eleven, co-regent.
45. Ptolemy XV. was assassinated at the instigation of Cleopatra, and â€â€
Ptolemy XVI. Cæsar (also called Cæsarion), her son by Cæsar, was appointed co-regent.
44. Cæsar was murdered.
41.
31.
30. Antony, having summoned Cleopatra to Tarsus to answer for the conduct of her general Allienus, who contrary to her wishes had aided the army of Brutus and Cassius at Philippi, was captivated by her beauty and talent. After having spent years of debauchery with the Egyptian queen, he was at length declared by the Roman Senate to be an enemy of his country. Octavianus marched against him, defeated him at Actium, and captured Alexandria. Antony committed suicide, and Cleopatra also is said to have caused her own death by the bite of an asp.
Egypt now became a Roman province subject only to the emperor and was governed by viceroys or prefects nominated by the emperor.
2. Roman Period.B.C. 30-A.D. 395. The Roman emperors followed the example of the Ptolemies in representing themselves to the Egyptian people as successors of the old Pharaohs and in maintaining the appearance of a national Egyptian state.  Christianity was early introduced into Egypt, where it spread rapidly.
B.C. 30-29. C. Cornelius Gallus (B.C. 69-26), whom Ovid ranked first among Roman elegiac poets, was appointed first perfect. He repressed an insurrection in Upper Egypt (p. 256) and fought against the Ethiopians. Having afterwards fallen into disgrace with the emperor, he committed suicide.  The reformed calendar was finally introduced by Augustus.
27. Caesar Octavianus, under the title of Augustus, became sole ruler of the vast Roman empire (p. 13).
24. The Ethiopians, under their queen Candace, invaded Egypt. Strabo travelled in Egypt.
A.D. 14-37. Tiberius erected the Sebasteum at Alexandria.
19. Germanicus visited Egypt.
37-41. Caligula. In Alexandria civic disturbances took place between the Hellenes and the Jews.
41-51. Claudius. The building of the pronaos of the temple at Esneh (p. 342) was begun.
54-68. Nero. Egypt acquired a new source of wealth as a commercial station between India and Rome.
68-69. Galba. Otho. Vitellius.
69-79. Vespasian (p. 14) was first proclaimed emperor at Alexandria. From this city his son Titus (79-81) started on his expedition against Palestine, which terminated with the destruction of Jerusalem in the year 70. The temple of Onias (p. cviii) was closed.
81-96. Domitian favoured the worship of Isis and Serapis at Rome.
96-98. Nerva.
98-117. Trajan (pp. 13, 182). The canal connecting the Nile with the Red Sea was re-opened (Amnis Trajanus).
cxi
117-138. Hadrian (p. 14) visited Egypt in 130. His favourite Antinous was drowned in the Nile, and was commemorated by the founding of the town of Antinoupolis (p. 209).
138-161. Antoninus Pius.
161-180. Marcus Aurelius (p. 14).
172. Rebellion of the Bucolians, or cow-herds, who had long been settled among the marshes to the E. of Alexandria, quelled by Avidius Cassius.
175. Avidius Cassius was proclaimed emperor by the Egyptian legions, but was assassinated in Syria.
176. Marcus Aurelius visited Alexandria (p. 14).
180-192. Commodus.
ca. 190.
et seq. School of the Cathechists flourished at Alexandria under Pantaenus (the first head on record), Clement, and Origen.
193-211. Septimius Severus (p. 14).
204. Edict prohibiting Roman subjects from embracing Christianity. The Delta at this period was thickly studded with Christian communities.
211-217. Caracalla (p. 14) visited Egypt. Massacre at Alexandria.
212. The Constitutio Antonina admitted provincials to the Roman citizenship.
Caracalla was assassinated by the perfect of his guards â€â€
217-218. Macrinus, who was recognized as emperor by the Egyptians. After his death a series of contests for the possession of the throne took place at Alexandria.
249-251. Decius (p. 14). Persecution of the Christians in 250 A.D. under Bishop Dionysius of Alexandria.
253-260. Valerian. Persecution of the Christians (p. 14).
260-268. Gallienus accorded a certain measure of religious toleration to the Christians. Plague in Egypt.
260. Rebellion of Macrianus, who was recognized as emperor by the Egyptians. He marched into Illyria against Domitian, the general of Gallienus.
265. Æmilianus (Alexander) was proclaimed emperor by the army at Alexandria and recognized by the people, but was defeated and put to death by the Roman legions.
268. Lower Egypt occupied by an army of Queen Zenobia of Palmyra, and part of Upper Egypt by the Blemmyes.
268-270. Claudius II,
270-275. Aurelian.
270. Probus reconquered Egypt for the empire.
ca. 271. Anthony of Coma, a Copt, became the first hermit.
276-282. Probus obtained the purple at Alexandria.
278. His successful campaign against the Blemmyes.
284-305. Diocletian.
292. Rebellion in Upper Egypt.
294. Insurrection of the Alexandrians.
cxii
295. Diocletian took Alexandria.
303. Persecution of the Christians.
305-313 Maximinus. Beginning of the Arian controversies.
ca. 320. Pachomius founded the first convent in Tabennēsē (p. 222).
324-337. Constantine the Great, the first emperor who was really a friend of the Christians. The government of Egypt was reorganized; the country was made into a diocese and subdivided into six provinces, viz. Egypt, Augustamnica, Heptanomis (afterwards called Arcadia), Thebaïs, Upper Egypt, and Lower Egypt.
325. Council of Nice. The doctrine of the presbyter Arius of Alexandria that Christ was begotten by God before all time, for the purpose of creating the world, and was godlike, but not very God, was condemned; while the doctrine that Father and Son are homousioi, or of the same nature, was sanctioned.
326. Athanasius, Archbishop of Alexandria.
328. Constantine founded Constantinople as a new metropolis of Greek art and science.
ca. 330. Beginning of the communities of anchorites in the Sketian and Nitrian deserts (Macarius, Amûn).
337-361. Constantius. He favoured Arianism. Athanasius was banished from Alexandria more than once.
ca. 350. The earliest Coptic translations of the Bible date from about this period.
361-363. Julian, surnamed the Aposlate from his renunciation of Christianity (p. 14).
373. Athanasius died, after witnessing the success of his cause in the last years of his life.
379-395. Theodosius I. the Great. He formally declared Christianity to be the religion of the empire. Persecution of the Arians and heathens (p. 14). Destruction of the Serapeum (p. 14).
395. Partition of the Roman empire, Arcadius being emperor of the East, and Honorius of the West.
3. Byzantine Period.395-368.
395-408. Arcadius. Theophilus, the bigoted Patriarch of Alexandria (p. 15), carried fire and sword against the opponents of anthropomorphism, the doctrine that God must be considered to have a human form.
408-450. Theodosius II.
413. Theophilus died and was succeeded by Cyril (p. 15).
415. Hypatia, the female pagan philosopher (p. 15), died a martyr's death at Alexandria.
431. The Patriarch Cyril defended his view, that the Virgin was η ΘεοÄόÇοÂ, against Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople, at the Third Å“;cumenical Council, held at Epesus.
444. Death of Cyril.
449. In the so-called ‘Robber Council’ at Ephesus the Patriarch Dioscurus of Alexandria obtained a victory as representative of the monophysite view (see p. cxiii).
cxiii
450. Marcian.
451. At the Fourth Å“;cumenical Council, that of Chalcedon, the monophysite doctrine, to the effect that Christ possessed a double nature before his incarnation, but that his human nature was afterwards absorbed by his divine, was condemned, chiefly through the influence of Pope Leo the Great. At this council the doctrine that Christ possesses two natures. á¼€ÃÆ’Ã…γÇῦÄÉ and ἀÄÃÂέÀÀÉÂ, but at the same time ἀδιαιÃÂέÄÉ and ἀÇÉÃÂίÃÄÉÂ, i.e. unmixed and unchangeable, but also indistinguishable and inseparable, was formally adopted by the Church. The Egyptian Christians, to this day, adhere to the monophysite doctrine. Establishment of the national Egyptian or Coptic Church.
474-491. Zeno.
491-518 Anastasius.
502. Famine in Egypt.
527-565. Justinian (p. 15). New administrative measures.
610-641. Heraclius (p. 15).
619. The Persians under Chosroes II. invaded Egypt (p. 15). Alexandria was taken. Chosroes ruled with moderation.
622. The Hegïra, the beginning of the Mohammedan calendar (p. lxxxiv).
626. The Persians expelled by Heraclius.
632 Death of Mohammed. Abu Bekr, his successor, becomes the first caliph.
631. Beginning of the conquest of Syria by the Arabs. Death of Abu Bekr. Omar becomes the second caliph.
636. Decisive victory of the Arabs over the Byzantines on the Yarmûḳ. Fall of Damascus.
637. Victory of the Arabs over the Persians at Kadesia; fall of Ktesiphon. End of the Sassanide empire.
638. Fall of Jerusalem. Omar in Syria.
.